Radioactive Superheroes: Science, Myth, and Misconception

 

We are all familiar with Dr. Robert Bruce Banner, a nuclear physicist. But we are even more familiar with his second persona, the Hulk—who, when enraged, transforms from a human into an immensely powerful “monster” and smashes everything in sight. Both characters are fictional, created from a small dose of science mixed with a large measure of imagination.

Many more such superheroes and supervillains have been created in comic books, short stories, novels, films, and television series.

The journey of comic books as a new storytelling medium using cartoons began in 1897 with the publication of “The Yellow Kid in McFadden’s Flats.” The first superhero of science fiction was Superman. Superman’s journey began in 1938 with the first issue of Action Comics, published by America’s National Allied Publications.

At that time, astronomers around the world were preparing spacecraft with the goal of venturing into outer space. This spirit was reflected in the characters of Action Comics. Superman was born on a fictional planet called Krypton, which orbited a red star named Rao. When Kryptonian scientists Jor-El and Lara-El realized that their planet was about to be destroyed, they built a small spacecraft and placed their only child, Kal-El, inside it. Krypton was subsequently destroyed. After travelling across vast stretches of space, Kal-El arrived-on Earth. Here he acquired extraordinary strength, incredible speed, the ability to fly, and X-ray vision—thus becoming our Superman.

Inspired by Superman’s popularity, one superhero and supervillain after another began to appear. Batman, Joker, Captain America, Wonder Woman, Supergirl, Spider-Man, Hulk, Thor, X-Men, Iron Man—all are physically extraordinarily powerful. Many established laws of conventional science do not apply to them. They can defy gravity; neither Newton’s laws of motion nor the law of conservation of energy seem capable of governing their actions. They obey neither Einstein’s special nor general theory of relativity. They casually employ what seems impossible in real science—such as quantum tunnelling and entanglement. These fictional characters erase the limitations of real science through imagination.

In many cases, radioactive radiation is portrayed as the source of the immense power within superheroes. In the process of crafting science-fiction stories, radiation science has been consistently misused. Let us look at a few examples.

(1) The Incredible Hulk

Bruce Banner, a nuclear scientist at a U.S. government research laboratory, was a perfectly polite and responsible gentleman. While developing a gamma bomb, he noticed during a test that a young man had accidentally entered the danger zone. Trying to save the youth, Rick Jones, Banner was severely injured by the blast. Under the influence of radioactive gamma rays, the DNA of his body and nerve cells changed in such a way that whenever he became angry, all his muscles swelled enormously, transforming him into a powerful green monster—the Hulk. The angrier he became, the greater his destructive power.

Trying to reconcile this story with real science creates problems. It is true that radiation can cause changes in DNA. If the dose is very high, DNA structures can be destroyed, cells can die, and the person may die as well. But there is no scientifically demonstrable evidence that radiation can turn a human into such a monster.

(2) Spider-Man

School student Peter Parker visited a science exhibition. During a display on genetic engineering, a spider accidentally wandered into a stream of radioactive particles and became radioactive. When this spider bit Peter Parker, its altered DNA entered his body. As a result, Peter gained immense strength. Like a giant spider, he could climb vertical walls, spin webs, and hang from them.

Here too, science has been grossly misused. A bite from a highly venomous spider can kill a human—but a human cannot turn into a spider.

(3) Radioactive Man

Chinese nuclear physicist Chen Lu deliberately exposed himself to radiation in his laboratory to turn himself into a living nuclear reactor. Absorbing massive amounts of nuclear radiation, he became a source of destructive radioactivity himself—thus becoming Radioactive Man. He could emit radiation from his body at will to destroy others and could also absorb radiation emitted from external sources.

The exaggeration of nuclear physics here is obvious. Even a small nuclear reactor requires enormously complex infrastructure—could all of that exist inside a human body?

(4) Doctor Manhattan

Physicist Jon Osterman was accidentally trapped in a powerful electric field during a dangerous experiment. His entire body was vaporized. Yet he did not die. Months later, his body slowly reassembled cell by cell, transforming him into the strange blue, jelly-like being Doctor Manhattan, who could control mass, energy, and time.

Here too, the physics of matter–energy transformation has been wildly exaggerated. No known laws of nuclear physics can make such a transformation possible.

(5) Firestorm

DC Comics’ Firestorm is often compared to nuclear fusion. In the story, physicist Martin Stein and his student Ronnie Raymond are fused together during an explosion at a nuclear power plant, creating Firestorm—a being capable of producing nuclear energy.

The extreme distortion of science here is obvious. It is impossible for two humans to merge into a nuclear fusion reactor.

(6) Captain Atom

In the story, Nathaniel Adam was a military scientist. He died in a horrific nuclear explosion. Years later, he reappears as a metallic man capable of drawing energy from the quantum field.

Here, the concepts of quantum fields and atomic theory are misused to create a confusing fantasy that suggests even metal can possess life.

(7) The Leader

In Marvel Comics, Samuel Sterns was a janitor. Instead of dying from radiation exposure leaking from a laboratory, his brain cells were altered, making him super-intelligent. Using his intellect, he attempts to defeat the Hulk.

Once again, the nature of radioactivity is distorted. An increase in intelligence due to radiation exposure is impossible.

(8) Nuclear Man

In the fourth Superman series, nuclear physics is abused so severely that it is shocking. In the story, Superman’s DNA is combined with a nuclear missile and launched into the Sun. A reaction with solar energy creates Nuclear Man, who possesses all of Superman’s abilities and strength. By absorbing sunlight, Nuclear Man becomes immensely powerful.

Although ancient myths speak of humans being born from the Sun, everyone knows that this is impossible.

It appears that almost all superheroes in science fiction are, in one way or another, influenced by radiation. Nearly all of these characters were created during the Cold War era, a time marked by competition to develop nuclear weapons. The devastation unleashed by the United States through the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki indirectly influenced the creation of these superheroes and supervillains, reflecting the dawn of an age of destruction.

Some sociologists believe that, in these stories, science has been used metaphorically to convey the destructive consequences of nuclear power. The aggressive rivalry among nuclear-armed nations is mirrored symbolically in these science-fiction narratives. Behind the façade of fantasy, these stories portray an allegorical reflection of real-world conflicts driven by nuclear power.

Whether or not there was a conscious social purpose, the exaggerated and often incorrect portrayal of the power, nature, and capabilities of radioactive radiation in the creation of superhero and supervillain characters ultimately serves the purpose of entertainment. However, this entertainment indirectly helps to foster misconceptions about nuclear energy and radiation among the public.

In almost all these characters, radiation is shown to alter cellular DNA, giving rise to bizarre abilities. Humans acquire monstrous strength, the power to fly, the ability to emit nuclear energy from their bodies, or even to project X-rays from their eyes and see through objects.

Under the banner of science fiction, science has been recklessly misused in these stories. So what, then, is the real science of radiation?

Radiation is a flow of energy. It can broadly be classified into two types: radiation carried by particles and radiation carried by waves. When particles such as electrons, protons, or alpha particles carry more energy than required for their stable energy states, they can ionize matter upon interacting with it, causing ionization. Any remaining excess energy is then emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves.

According to quantum theory, the energy of a wave depends on its frequency—the higher the frequency, the greater the energy, and the shorter the wavelength. Among visible light, violet has the shortest wavelength. Shorter wavelengths than violet correspond to ultraviolet radiation. Shorter still are X-rays and gamma rays. X-rays originate from transitions involving electrons in atomic orbitals, while gamma rays are emitted from the atomic nucleus, arising from excited energy states of protons or neutrons. Radioactive elements emit gamma rays spontaneously.

When X-rays or gamma rays enter the human body, the fraction absorbed versus transmitted depends on their energy. Absorption of X-rays or gamma rays does not make a person or any material radioactive for a long period. A human becomes radioactive only when a radioactive isotope enters the body. Our bodies naturally contain small amounts of radioactive calcium and potassium; therefore, the human body emits a very small amount of radiation. However, this emission is so weak that it is even less than the radiation received from sunlight.

Let us now examine the harmful effects of radiation on the human body. Excessive radiation can break the bonds in the DNA located within the nucleus of living cells. If the damage is minor, DNA repair mechanisms can fix it. If the damage is extensive, cells die. When many cells die simultaneously, normal bodily functions are disrupted, organs lose functionality, and if most cells die rapidly, death can occur. However, radiation can never turn a human body into a nuclear power station.

When DNA bonds break, the body’s automatic repair systems attempt to rejoin them. During this process, errors may occur. Sometimes cells divide with faulty DNA, leading to the formation of cancerous cells. This is how radiation exposure increases the risk of cancer. But radiation can never transform someone into the Hulk or Spider-Man. If brain cells absorb excessive radiation, neurons die and brain function deteriorates. There is no possibility of the opposite occurring—that is, radiation cannot suddenly transform a person from unintelligent to super-intelligent.

If the abilities of fictional superheroes remain within the realm of fairy tales, there is no danger. But if we attempt to place them within the domain of science, then careful thought and critical reasoning are essential.

References

1. Barry Fitzgerald, Physics Education, Vol. 54, 015019 (2019).

2. Mark Brake, The Science of Superheroes, Racehorse Publishing, New York, 2018.

3. James Kakalios, The Physics of Superheroes, Gotham Books, New York, 2009.